When Did Transportation End In Britain? Understanding Historical Shifts

Are you curious about when transportation ended in Britain? At worldtransport.net, we offer comprehensive insights into the historical shifts in transportation. Transportation ended in Britain with the Transportation Act of 1718, ceasing in April 1776 due to the American Revolution. In this guide, we will explore the factors leading to this shift, including the impact on British society, the penal system, and the subsequent changes in transportation policies. Dive in to discover more about the evolution of transportation and logistics!

Table of Contents:

The End of Transportation in Britain
Historical Context of Transportation
The Transportation Act of 1718
Employment of Convict Labor
Contrasting Indentured, Enslaved, and Convict Servants
Attempts to Stop Convict Transportation
Locations of Convict Transportees
Living Conditions of Convict Transportees
FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions
Conclusion

1. When Did Transportation End in Britain?

Transportation, as a penal practice, ended in Britain when acceptance of convict ships in colonial ports ceased in April 1776, coinciding with the outbreak of the American Revolution. This pivotal moment marked the end of an era where Britain relied on its American colonies as destinations for its convicts.

Factors Contributing to the End of Transportation

Several factors contributed to the cessation of transportation to the American colonies:

American Revolution: The outbreak of hostilities between Britain and its American colonies made it impossible to continue sending convicts across the Atlantic.
Colonial Resistance: The American colonies had long expressed their displeasure with the practice of transportation, viewing it as an imposition by the British government.
Shifting Penal Policies: As transportation became untenable, British authorities began to explore alternative penal policies, including imprisonment and hard labor within Britain itself.

The Impact on British Society

The end of transportation had significant implications for British society:

Penal System Overhaul: The British penal system had to adapt to manage an increasing number of convicts within its own borders, leading to reforms and the construction of new prisons.
Social and Economic Consequences: The shift in penal policy affected social attitudes towards crime and punishment, as well as the economic considerations of managing a large convict population.

2. What Was the Historical Context of Transportation in Britain?

The practice of transportation in Britain dates back to the early 17th century, driven by a combination of penal, economic, and social factors. Initially, convicts were sent to the American colonies, where their labor was used to support colonial economies.

Early Transportation to the Americas

King James I: In 1615, King James I authorized the transportation of convicts to colonies, aiming to utilize their labor for the benefit of the Commonwealth.
Haphazard System: Before the Transportation Act of 1718, the transportation of convicts was conducted unsystematically by merchants or the convicts themselves.

Reasons for Transportation

Several reasons fueled the transportation of convicts from Britain:

Overcrowded Jails: City jails in England were overcrowded, unhealthy, and lacked sufficient resources to care for inmates.
Penal System Flux: The English penal system struggled to manage the increasing number of felons, necessitating a new solution.
Economic Benefits: The colonies required labor, and transporting convicts provided a source of cheap workers for various industries.

3. How Did the Transportation Act of 1718 Shape the Practice?

The Transportation Act of 1718 formalized and systematized the transportation of convicts to the American colonies. This act was a response to the growing number of felons in London and aimed to alleviate the burden on local jails.

Key Provisions of the Act

The Transportation Act of 1718 included several key provisions:

Financial Commitment: Parliament committed significant financial resources to underwrite the systematic transportation of noncapital felons to the colonies.
Contract System: The act established a contract system, where merchants were paid to transport convicts to America.
Incentives for Transportation: The act aimed to rid England of unwanted criminals and avoid the use of the death penalty whenever possible.

Impact on Convict Numbers

Following the Transportation Act of 1718, the number of convicts sent to the American colonies increased substantially. For instance, Virginia alone received approximately 20,000 convicts between 1718 and 1775, as noted by historian Lyda C. Bitto.

Economic Benefits for England

The act provided economic benefits to England by:

Reducing Penal Costs: By sending convicts to the colonies, England reduced the costs associated with maintaining prisons and managing the convict population.
Avoiding Capital Punishment: Transportation offered an alternative to the death penalty, aligning with evolving attitudes towards punishment.

4. How Were Convict Laborers Employed in the Colonies?

Convict laborers in the American colonies were employed in various sectors, contributing significantly to the colonial economy. While many were assigned to agricultural work, others possessed valuable skills that were utilized in different industries.

Agricultural Employment

Tobacco Cultivation: In Virginia, tobacco cultivation was labor-intensive, and many convicts were employed in planting, harvesting, and processing tobacco.
Demand for Labor: The spread of tobacco cultivation increased the demand for workers, which was partly met by the influx of convict laborers.

Skilled Labor

Historian Lyda C. Bitto’s research indicates that a significant number of convicts possessed skills applicable to trades beyond agriculture. According to Bitto, convicts made significant contributions to Virginia’s labor force and were not guilty of the majority of crimes committed in the colony.

Flowers of the Tobacco Plant: The labor-intensive cultivation of tobacco led to the widespread use of convict laborers in Virginia’s agricultural sector.

Examples of Skilled Trades

Barbering: Some convicts were skilled barbers, providing essential services in the colonies.
Carpentry: Convict carpenters were valuable for building and maintaining infrastructure.
Shoemaking: Skilled shoemakers were in demand to produce footwear for the colonists.
Iron Manufacturing: Some convicts worked in iron manufacturing, contributing to the production of essential goods.

Case Study: John Tayloe’s Neabsco Company

John Tayloe, an iron manufacturer in the Northern Neck, utilized convict labor at his Neabsco Company iron mine in Prince William County. An advertisement in the Virginia Gazette in 1766 sought the return of Arundell Carnes, a convict laborer who had escaped.

Arundell Carnes: A Skilled Convict

Carnes’s story illustrates the diverse skills possessed by some convicts:

Medical Knowledge: Carnes claimed to know something about being a doctor.
Gentleman’s Attendant: He also knew how to wait on a gentleman.
Seafaring Skills: Carnes attempted to pass as a sailor, indicating some level of maritime knowledge.

5. How Did Convict Servitude Compare to Indentured Servitude and Enslavement?

Convict servitude, indentured servitude, and enslavement were distinct forms of labor in the American colonies, each with its own characteristics and implications.

Indentured Servitude

Voluntary Agreement: Indentured servants voluntarily entered into a master-servant arrangement for a specified number of years, typically between five and seven.
Freedom Fee: At the end of their service, indentured servants were entitled to a freedom fee, clothes, and seeds to start their own farms.

Enslavement

Forced Labor: Enslaved Africans were forcibly brought to the colonies and subjected to lifelong servitude.
No Rights: Enslaved individuals had no legal rights and were considered property.

Convict Servitude

Involuntary Transportation: Convicts were transported to the colonies as punishment for crimes committed in Britain.
Fixed Term: Convicts typically served a fixed term of seven years.
Exploitation: Because convicts were already outlaws, they could be more easily exploited than indentured servants or enslaved people.

Economic Considerations

Purchase Price: The purchase price of convicts was generally lower than that of indentured white and enslaved African laborers.
Cost Comparison: Late in the colonial period, a male enslaved person cost between £35 and £44, while most male convicts sold for less than £13.

William Buckland: An Indentured Craftsman

William Buckland, an indentured craftsman, represents the voluntary nature of indentured servitude. He chose to come to the colonies and had certain rights and entitlements upon completing his service.

6. What Efforts Were Made to Stop Convict Transportation to the Colonies?

Despite the economic benefits of convict labor, Virginia and Maryland repeatedly attempted to halt the transportation of convicts to their shores. These efforts, however, were largely unsuccessful due to the profitability of the practice for the British government.

Colonial Resistance

Legislative Enactments: The colonies passed laws to prevent England from sending felons, but many of these enactments were overturned by the Board of Trade or other agents of the king.
Economic Measures: Virginia passed an act in 1722 to set fees and restrictions designed to make it too costly for merchants to send convicts, but this was overturned following complaints.

Sir William Berkeley: As Governor of Virginia, Berkeley played a role in the early attempts to restrict the importation of convicts into the colony.

Early Attempts

1671 Order: In 1671, the king’s Council issued an order stating that no Newgate or Goale [jail] birds should be imported into the colony.
Hugh Nevett Case: Merchant Hugh Nevett was caught importing Newgate “Goale birds,” leading to legal action and the requirement to send the convicts back within two months.

Increased Convict Arrivals After 1718

John Clayton’s Petition: Attorney General John Clayton petitioned for an extra stipend due to the increased workload caused by the influx of criminals.
Quarantine Act: In 1766 and 1772, Virginia passed acts to quarantine convicts arriving with “gaol fever” (typhus).

Benjamin Franklin’s Objections

Criticism of British Policy: Benjamin Franklin criticized the British government for refusing to allow the colonies to legislate against the importation of convicts.
Rattlesnake Analogy: Franklin suggested exchanging rattlesnakes for convicts, highlighting the dangers and inconveniences of convict transportation.

7. Where Were Convict Transportees Located in Virginia?

Most convicts in Virginia landed at Northern Neck ports along the Potomac and Rappahannock rivers. This area became a hub for convict labor due to its rapidly expanding tobacco and grain fields.

Key Landing Ports

Private Plantations: Convicts were often sold directly to private plantations. In 1774, George Washington purchased some convicts for his Mount Vernon plantation.
Dumfries and Alexandria: These ports on the Potomac River were major entry points for convicts.
Leedstown, Hobb’s Hole, and Fredericksburg: These towns along the Rappahannock River also served as important landing sites.

Geographic Distribution

Northern Neck: Lieutenant Governor Sir William Gooch described the Northern Neck as the place where most transported convicts were sold and settled.
Rappahannock and South Potomac Districts: Between 1725 and 1753, the majority of ships carrying convicts landed in these districts.

A Survey of the Northern Neck of Virginia: This region was the primary destination for most convicts transported to Virginia, serving as a hub for agricultural and other labor.

Movement to the Backcountry

Soul Drivers: As the colonial period progressed, some convicts moved into the colony’s backcountry, facilitated by traders known as “soul drivers.”
Augusta County: In 1773, traders from Augusta County bought part of a thirty-nine-convict convoy that had arrived at Baltimore.

8. What Were the Living Conditions of Convict Transportees?

The living conditions of convict transportees varied significantly depending on their economic status and the attitudes of their masters.

Voyage Conditions

Poorest Felons: The poorest convicts were kept in chains in the ship’s hold, subjected to filthy conditions, poor food, and life-threatening diseases.
Mortality: Many convicts died during the voyage to the colonies due to these harsh conditions.

Servitude Conditions

Abuse: Convicts were often victims of abuse, particularly because they were already considered outlaws.
Return to Britain: Many convicts, after surviving their servitude, returned to Great Britain.
Escape: Some convicts attempted to escape their masters, often seeking passage back to Britain.

Daniel Defoe’s “Moll Flanders”

Contrasting Experiences: Daniel Defoe’s novel Moll Flanders illustrates the contrasting experiences of well-off and poor convicts.
Privileged Transportation: Flanders, having accumulated money, paid for her passage and enjoyed relatively comfortable conditions.
Immediate Freedom: Upon arrival in Virginia, Flanders was able to pay for her freedom and avoid the harsh realities of convict servitude.

9. FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions

Q1: When did the transportation of convicts end in Britain?

The transportation of convicts ended in Britain in April 1776, coinciding with the start of the American Revolution, which made it impossible to send convicts to colonial ports.

Q2: What was the Transportation Act of 1718?

The Transportation Act of 1718 was a British law that formalized and systematized the transportation of convicts to the American colonies, aiming to alleviate overcrowded jails and provide labor for the colonies.

Q3: Where were most convicts transported in the American colonies?

Most convicts were transported to Virginia and Maryland, which together received about 80 percent of all transported convicts.

Q4: What kind of labor did convicts perform in the colonies?

Convicts performed various types of labor, including agricultural work such as tobacco cultivation, and skilled trades such as barbering, carpentry, and shoemaking.

Q5: How did the colonists feel about the transportation of convicts?

Many colonists, including Benjamin Franklin, objected to the transportation of convicts, viewing it as an imposition by the British government and a threat to colonial society.

Q6: What were the living conditions like for convict transportees?

Living conditions varied, but the poorest convicts often faced harsh conditions, including overcrowding, disease, and abuse. Those with some resources could mitigate their suffering.

Q7: Why did Britain start transporting convicts to Australia after the American Revolution?

With the American colonies no longer available, Britain needed a new destination for its convicts. Australia was chosen for its remoteness and potential for colonization.

Q8: What were the main reasons for Britain to transport convicts to the colonies?

The main reasons included relieving overcrowded jails, reducing penal costs, providing labor for the colonies, and avoiding the death penalty.

Q9: How did convict servitude differ from indentured servitude?

Convict servitude was involuntary and imposed as punishment, while indentured servitude was a voluntary agreement for a fixed term, with the expectation of eventual freedom and compensation.

Q10: What role did economic factors play in the transportation of convicts?

Economic factors played a significant role, as the colonies needed labor, and convicts provided a cheap source of workers. The British government also benefited from reduced penal costs.

10. Conclusion

The end of transportation in Britain marked a significant shift in penal policy and colonial relations. The American Revolution brought an end to the practice of sending convicts to the American colonies, leading to new approaches in managing crime and punishment in Britain. At worldtransport.net, we provide detailed insights into these historical shifts and their broader implications.

Explore our website, worldtransport.net, to discover more about the fascinating history of transportation and logistics. Dive into our articles, analyses, and case studies to gain a deeper understanding of how transportation has shaped our world. Contact us at +1 (312) 742-2000 or visit our address at 200 E Randolph St, Chicago, IL 60601, United States, for more information.